SHAN MISSION 


BY 


REV. J. N. CUSHING, D.D. 


BOSTON 
AMERICAN BAPTIST MISSIONARY UNION 
1893 


Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2023 with funding from 
Columbia University Libraries" 


https://archive.org/details/shanmissionOOcush 


INTRODUCTION. 


SHAN is the Burman appellation for those races which call 
themselves Tai. They are probably the most numerous and 
widely diffused of the Indo-Chinese races, and occupy the 
valleys and plateaux of the broad belt of mountainous country 
that leaves the Himalayas and trends southeasterly between 
Burma Proper on the west, and China, Annam, and Cambodia 
on the east, to the Gulf of Siam. The delta of the Menam is 
the only broad low country in which any portion of them 
live. 

The divisions of the Tai family are the Siamese, Laos, Low, 
Burmese Shans, Chinese Shans, Khamti, and Ahom. The 
Siamese form the southern half and the Laos the northern 
half of the kingdom of Siam, which is now the only independ- 
ent Tai state. The Low dwell east of the Laos on the farther 
side of the Cambodia River. The Burmese Shans extend 
northerly and northwesterly from the Laos country to the 
boundary of the Chinese province of Yunnan. The Chinese 
Shans lie principally within that province, while the Khamtis 
, occupy the region between the upper waters of the Irrawaddy 
and Assam. ‘The Ahom no longer exist as a separate people. 
After their conquest of Assam, they gradually lost their visi. 
bility as a race, and were absorbed by the Assamese, whom 
they had subdued. Their language has disappeared as a 
spoken tongue, but some of their books remain as their 
monument. 

The Tai races undoubtedly had a common home in South 
western China. Philological investigation of their languages, 


4 


ethnological resemblances, native traditions, and evidence 
from Chinese history, according to the recent researches of M,. 
Terrién de la Couperie, prove their relationship to the Chinese. 
Each division of the family probably represents a wave of 
emigration from the original home. ‘The more southern races 
seem to have absorbed a larger element of the aboriginal 
peoples which they displaced than the northern races, and 
consequently to have been considerably modified thereby. 
Thus the Laos appear to have mixed extensively with the 
Lewas whom they supplanted, as their features show and tra- 
dition testifies. 

It is a peculiar characteristic of the Tai races, that, with 
the exception of Siam, they are divided into numerous 
principalities of different sizes, which are independent of each 
other, and yet tributary to some more powerful government 
under the control of an alien race. Thus the Chinese Shan 
principalities are tributary to China. Those of the Khamtis 
and Burmese Shans were tributary to King Theebau until 
his overthrow by the British in November, 1885, and will now 
doubtless be brought under English supremacy. The Laos and 
Low principalities are connected with Siam, which is the only 
case of a suzerain of kindred race. This peculiarity has, per- 
haps, been developed by the mountainous character of most 
of the country occupied by the Tai, through which each dis- 
trict and its inhabitants are more or less isolated from every 
other, and that community of interests which would tend to 
bind the principalities together in union, under a central 
government of their own, is prevented. 

Vague tradition points to an ancient Shan kingdom in the - 
northern part of Burma, whose capital is sometimes located 
on the Shwayleh River, an eastern branch of the Irrawaddy, 
between Mandalay and Bham6, and sometimes in the vicinity 
of Mogoung, a town several days’ journey northwest of Bhamé. 
A Shan manuscript chronicle, obtained by Capt. Pemberton 


5 


many years ago, is reported by him as supporting this idea 
by giving a description of a Shan kingdom called Pong. The 
value of its testimony, as given by Capt. Pemberton, is ex: 
tremely doubtful, for he was dependent for his information 
concerning its contents upon a Munipuri who professed to 
be familiar with Shan. Moreover, the characteristic tendency 
of the Shans to magnify the state and power of their princes, 
may cast a doubt upon its trustworthiness. Burman history 
is silent in regard to any such kingdom, which is exceedingly 
strange, unless it existed for a short period only, and fell to 
pieces through intestine troubles. No Shan kingdom could 
have maintained itself long in that region without coming 
into collision with the arrogant aggressiveness of the sover- 
eigns of Ava, who always claimed supremacy over it, and 
thereby leaving some trace of its existence. The only Shan 
sovereigns mentioned in Burman chronicles are the usurpers 
who seized the royal power at Ava in the fourteenth century, 
but the dynasty which they established was of short duration. 
The fact that the people of that northern region are called 
the “Great Tai” by the other branches of the family, is some 
indication of a superior importance attached to them at some 
former time. The term may belong to them as occupying the 
first home of the race in Farther India. Be that as it may, it 
is evident that the northern part of Burma was once the seat 
of a large Shan population, of which the present population 
is a mere shadow. Many mountains and villages in the Kakh- 
yen districts retain their Shan names, although the Shans 
have long ceased to occupy those regions. ‘The Shan princi- 
palities west of the Irrawaddy have sunk into insignificance, 
and are occupied by a small and scattered population, who 
dwell among the vestiges of the superior power and greatness 
of their ancestors. 

The languages of the Tai family are more than mere dialects, 
and yet they are very intimately related. In this respect they 


6 


resemble the Romanic languages of Europe. So close is the 
connection that a person who speaks one of them can under- 
stand many things said in an ordinary conversation in another, 
and in a few months can so familiarize himself with its peculiar 
words and idioms as to employ it with fluency. The Siamese 
has suffered the most change of any of these languages, on ac- 
count of the introduction of Pali words, not only into books, a 
thing which is common to all of them, but into the colloquial, 
where, in a more or less abbreviated form, the foreign terms 
have supplanted some of the commonest words of daily life. 
All the languages are markedly tonal like the Chinese. 

While the Siamese and Laos have a large prose as well as 
poetical literature, the- northern races have no books except 
those which are written in a rhythmical style. The alphabets, 
with the exception of the Siamese, which seems to be a modifi- 
cation of the Pali character of Cambodia, are derived directly 
from the Talaing, or from the Talaing through the Burman, 
and notwithstanding their similarity, have marked differences 
among themselves. 

The divisions of the Tai family vary considerably in 
architecture, costume, and habits of life. The Siamese and 
Laos feel the enervating effect of their hot climate, which pro- 
duces a dislike for any physical exertion ; while the abundant 
crops of their fertile rice fields and the plentiful supply of 
fish in their rivers relieve them of incentives to thrifty labor. 
On the other hand, the more northern divisions of the family, 
on account of the colder climate of their mountain plateaux, 
which are from eighteen hundred to four thousand feet above 
the sea, and the difficulty of finding a sufficient support from 
the limited crops of their rice fields, are an active, industrious, 
and thrifty people, largely given to trade. They are also 
more irascible and warlike, and value human life more 
cheaply than their southern brethren. 

Buddhism is the religion of the Tai family, but its hold 


7, 


upon the races east of the Salwen is much lighter than upon 
those on the west. Among the Siamese and Laos, spirit 
worship occupies a very prominent place, and influences the 
daily life of the people quite as much as Buddhism. Not- 
withstanding a general outward adherence to Buddhist forms, 
there is a great laxity of practice even among the priesthood. 
The earning and accumulation of money, visiting of theatri- 
cals, remaining away from the monastery in the houses of 
friends over night, and in the principality of Kaingtung, the 
riding of ponies, which are contrary to some of the most im- 
portant and positive rules of the Vinaya or Buddhist Books of 
Discipline, are common among the priests. Among the Shans 
west of the Salwen, Buddhism is held with an intensity of belief 
which manifests itself in an attachment that is strong even to 
bigotry, a great strictness of outward observance, and an 
intolerant disposition towards attempts to introduce Chris; 
tianity. 
MISSIONS TO THE TAI RACES. 
ee ilcmotameses 


The first mission to any of the Tai races was established 
among the Siamese by the American Baptists. In 1833, 
Rev. Dr. J. T. Jones, who had been connected for two years 
with the Burman mission, took up his residence in Bangkok. 
He was kindly received, and began his work without any 
Opposition or interference on the part of the government. 
Mr. Davenport joined the mission in 1836, and spent nine 
years in its service. Mr. Slafter arrived in 1839, but suc- 
cumbed to disease in less than two years. In 1843, Mr. 
Chandler, a machinist and type-founder, was transferred from 
Maulmain to Bangkok, and placed in charge of the printing- 
press. During his connection with the mission he was helpful 
to the Siamese government in its efforts to introduce some of the 
Western arts, and at the close of his term of missionary service, 


8 


continued for a time to make his home in Siam. The mission 
was re-enforced in 1847 by the arrival of Miss H. Morse, and 
in 1848 by the arrival of Rev. S. J. Smith. Notwithstanding 
the long continuance of the mission, the faithful preaching 
of the missionaries in the temples and among the people, the 
circulation of the New Testament translated by Dr. Jones 
and of the tracts which he had prepared, scarcely a convert 
was gained from the pure Siamese population. In conse- 
quence of this fruitlessness of the mission, it was suspended 
in 1869. Since that time Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Smith have 
supported themselves by means of a printing establishment, 
and sought as far as possible to maintain Christian work 
among the Siamese. 

The American Presbyterians also began a mission to the 
Siamese not long after the establishment of one by the Bap- 
tists. Their principal stations are Bangkok and Petchaburee. 
Although their staff of missionaries has been large, the num- 
ber of converts has been very small until recently, when 
there has been quite an ingathering at Petchaburee. 


II. — The Laos. 


The American Presbyterians have a flourishing mission 
among the Laos, which was established more than twenty 
years ago at Chiengmai (Zimmay) by Dr. and Mrs. McGil- 
vary. ‘The people are more influenced by spirit worship than 
by Buddhism, and from the beginning of the mission have 
been much more ready to listen to the Gospel than the indif- 
ferent Siamese or the bigoted Burmese Shans. The early 
days of the mission were clouded with trial. The Prince of 
Chiengmai looked with jealous dislike upon the advent of the 
missionaries, and desired to keep his territory free from for- 
eign influence, religious or political. Although he made a 
grant of land in a suburb of the city for the site of a suitable 
mission house, the missionaries. were prevented from erecting 


9 


one by secret orders from the prince to dealers in building 
material, forbidding them to sell, and were compelled to dwell 
several years in a zayat, or a small bamboo house, at a place 
without the walls, reserved at that time for buildings for the 
accommodation of travellers. Finally the prince resorted to 
violence, and by causing two of the converts to be executed 
in 1869, intimidated the people who inclined to listen. In the 
troubles which resulted, he hoped to bring about the with- 
drawal of the missionaries. But God ruled otherwise. By 
the sudden death of the prince, the government passed into 
the hands of a ruler less hostile to foreigners. Although the 
missionaries were now kindly treated, the converts were still 
made to feel the displeasure of the government in most un- 
just and distréssing ways. Finally, after much delay, the 
King of Siam issued a proclamation of religious toleration, 
which he enforced upon his Laos tributaries much against 
their will. Since that time the number of Christians has in- 
creased, until now there are three hundred church members. 
A new station has been opened at Lakon, and the future of 
the mission seems to be very promising. 


III. — The Khamtis. 


The first attempt to reach the more northern sections of 
the Tai family was made by Rev. Dr. N. Brown, who left 
Maulmain in 1835, and arrived at Sadiya, Assam, in 1836. 
Many Khamtis lived in the mountainous district on the north- 
eastern side of this province. Major Jenkins, commissioner 
of Assam, becoming interested in this people, urged the open- 
ing of a mission to them, and offered As. 1,000 in aid of it 
on the arrival of the first missionary, and As. 1,000 more for 
a printing-press. The town of Sadiya was described as “ beau- 
tifully situated in the centre of a spacious plain surrounded by 
mountains which form an amphitheatre and bound the horizon 
on all sides, except a short distance to the southwest,’—a 


fe) 


picture which would describe the greater part of the cities 
of the Shan country. The mission was most unfortunate in 
being planted on the northwestern outskirts of the Khamti 
people, whence it was impossible to reach the mass of them, 
which lay beyond lofty and difficult mountain ranges. The 
writer well remembers the amusing account which Dr. Brown 
related at Yokohama in May, 1885, concerning his disappoint- 
ment on his arrival at Sadiya. Not long after reaching Sadiya, ° 
Major Jenkins and he started on elephants to see the Khamti 
settlements in the plain. Having visited three or four small 
and scattered hamlets, the officer said, with a dignified wave 
of the hand, “There is your field, and you will find more of 
the people beyond the mountains.” Notwithstanding the 
difficulties of the field, Dr. Brown settled himself to work, 
and subsequently a catechism and several small books which 
he prepared in the Khamti language were printed. After a 
time, political disturbances broke up the settlement at Sadiya. 
This, together with the fact that the great body of the Kham- 
tis could not be reached, led him to give the principal portion 
of his time to the Assamese, among whom he labored until 
1855. The linguistic versatility of Dr. Brown is noteworthy. 
One of the most popular hymns in the Burman hymn-book 
is his translation of “There is a happy land.” His little 
Khamti books have ceased to be used, but the Assamese and 
the Japanese have received translations of the New Testa- 
ment and much Christian literature from his hand. 


IV. — The Burmese Shans. 


The next effort to reach any of the northern divisions of the 
Tai family was made by Rev. Dr. Bixby, who left America in 
December, 1860, to open a mission among the Burmese Shans. 
This people had long attracted the attention of missionaries. 
Every dry season large numbers of them left the high table- 
lands occupied by the central principalities, east and west 


II 


of the Salwen, and descended by weeks of toilsome travel to 
Toungoo, Rangoon, and Maulmain with droves of ponies for 
the market, or with caravans of bullocks loaded with merchan- 
dise to be exchanged for salt, preserved fish, or foreign goods 
From the time of the annexation of Pegu province, compa- 
nies of Shans began to emigrate to English territory and settle 
there, in order to escape the extortion of Burman officials 
and the internecine wars among the Shan princes which the 
Burman king fostered from time to time, for the purpose of 
maintaining his supremacy. Shortly before Dr. Bixby’s 
arrival, ten thousand Shans, chiefly from the principality ot 
Sgah, came down ez masse to the Toungoo district, having fled 
from the troubles and dangers which arose from the civil war 
that was raging on account of the rebellion of the Mingoon 
prince against his royal father, King Mindoon. Land was 
promptly assigned to them by the English government. As 
it was not possible to enter Shanland, Dr. Bixby took advan- 
tage of this providential immigration into British Burma, and 
settled at Toungoo, where he made his hgme until his return 
to America. Dr. Bixby was extremely desirous of reaching 
the Shan country by crossing the Karen mountains, 
northeast of Toungoo. Many of the events in his journeys 
into those mountains are graphically described by his pen. 
Once he was successful in passing over the English frontier, 
and entering the territory of the adjacent principality of 
Mobyai, but the treacherous plot of his Shan coolies com- 
pelled him to turn back before he had reached the Shan vil- 
lages of the principality. In after years, as I repeatedly 
passed the wild and lonely spot whence Dr, Bixby felt obliged 
_ to retrace his steps, and listened to the story from one who 
was a personal attendant of his on that occasion, I have 
wondered why God permitted such a thwarting of missionary 
love and purpose. Good, however, came out of Dr. Bixby’s 
visits to the Karen mountains, for he was instrumental in 


12 


bringing the Geckos, Saukoos, and other tribes into peaceful 
relations with the English government, within whose territory 
most of them were situated. Several Karen churches were 
planted among the mountain people, which naturally fell to 
the care of Rev. Mr. Bunker of the Karen mission, after Dr. 
Bixby’s return to America. A small church of Shans and 
Burmans was also gathered in the city of Toungoo, and two 
schools were established, to which different races were wel- 
comed. 

In March, 1867, Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Cushing and Miss 
Gage joined the mission. Miss Gage began the study of 
the Burmese language, in order that she might render imme- 
diate assistance in the educational department, which was 
carried on in that language, and has since devoted herself to 
Burman work. Hitherto the use of the Shan language in 
evangelistic effort had been confined to the few Shan cate- 
chists. Mr. and Mrs. Cushing immediately applied them- 
selves to the acquisition of the Shan language, though their 
progress was necessarily slow, on account of the lack of that 
help which grammar and dictionary afford in the study of a lan- 
guage. In December, 1867, Mr. Cushing, in company with 
Rev. Mr. Rose of the Burman mission, went to Mandalay, and 
procuring a royal order, visited all the chief principalities of 
central Shanland, west of the Salwen. After a three months’ 
absence, Mr. Cushing returned to Lower Burma, leaving Mr. 
Rose to go to Bhamé. A year later, Mr. Cushing crossed the 
" mountains to Mobyai and was kindly received by the Saubwa, 
but having received a partial sunstroke, was carried back on 
a litter by Padoungs furnished by the Mobyai prince. Early 
in 1869, he started again for Shanland, having his wife for a 
companion. Passing northward into Upper Burma as far as 
Yeméethen, and turning eastward across the mountain ranges, 
they visited Mone, the largest Shan town west of the Salwen, 
and the headquarters of Burman military occupation. As 


13 


this was the first visit of a white lady to that region, native 
curiosity and attention were excessive. 

In May, 1869, Dr. Bixby returned to America, leaving Mrs. 
Bixby in charge of the station at Toungoo; and the next 
month Mr. Cushing removed to Rangoon, where he sought 
to reach the immigrant Shan population of that district. A 
small church was organized, and a school’ opened that bore 
good spiritual fruit in after years. In November, Mr. and 
Mrs. Cushing started on a five months’ journey to Shanland. 
Revisiting Moné, they went northeasterly, crossed the Salwen, 
and, by a route hitherto untraversed by a white person, reached 
Kengtung, which is the capital of a large principality, situated 
a short distance from the borders of Yunnan. Just before 
arriving at Kengtung, they passed over the water-shed which 
separates the Salwen and Cambodia Rivers. This was the 
loftiest of the ten mountain ranges over which their journey 
led, and rose to a height of nearly six thousand five hundred 
feet above the sea. 

At Kengtung they were received with unusual cordiality by 
the prince and princess, who were persons of great intelligence, 
and were desirous of more frequent intercourse and trade with 
foreigners. A comfortable house was furnished for residence 
during the visit, and every evening except Sunday evening an 
entertainment was given by the prince. In some of these 
entertainments, the manners and customs of the Kah-kwees, 
Kah-kaus, Moo-seurs, Lewas, and other tribes occupying the 
mountains, were set forth by representatives of the races 
summoned for the purpose. So friendly were the disposition 
and conduct of their prince, that throngs of people gathered 
daily at the missionary’s house without fear, to listen to 
the doctrines of the foreign religion. Subsequently it was 
learned, on trustworthy testimony, that after the departure 
of the missionaries, about sixty persons prepared a room, 
where they assembled to read and discuss the Christian books 


14 


which they had received. So far as their prince was con- 
cerned, they suffered no molestation; but after a few weeks, 
the jealousy of the Burman commander of the military in the 
territory east of the Salwen was aroused. Under his order, 
Burman soldiers suddenly surrounded the place of assembly, 
seized those gathered together, and fined them according to 
their property. Their books were burned, and they were 
intimidated by severe threats from meeting together again. 

From Kengtung the missionaries’ route lay southerly for 
nearly two weeks to Chiengmai, a Laos city of Northern 
Siam, where they enjoyed a week of delightful Christian 
intercourse with their Presbyterian brethren who had recently 
passed through severe trials in the execution of two of the 
disciples, and the efforts of the government to compel their 
withdrawal. Travel from Chiengmai to British Burma at 
that time was very dangerous. Large bands of dacoits in- 
fested every route. The outlying villages had been burned, 
and the people, with their elephants and such property as they 
could carry, had fled for safety to the stockade of Mainglon- 
gyee. For six months intercourse between Mainglongyee and 
both Maulmain and Pahpoon had ceased. On_ reaching 
Mainglongyee, the Siamese governor, considering himself 
responsible for the safety of the party, absolutely refused to 
allow it to proceed without an armed escort, which he would 
furnish only on condition that the English assistant com- 
missioner at Pahpoon would come with a police force to the 
west shore of the Salwen, which is the British frontier, and 
receive the party under his protection. Mainglongyee lies a 
day and a half east of the Salwen, and Pahpoon is situated as far 
west of the river. ‘Two volunteer messengers, however, were 
found, who by rapid travel at night and concealment in the 
daytime crossed the mountain ranges, swam the broad, swift 
Salwen, and arrived safely at Pahpoon. Mr. A. Hough, the 
officer in charge of the station, with great kindness responded 


15 


immediately to the request, and came with a company of 
thirty armed police. The Siamese governor then despatched 
the missionaries to the frontier with a guard of twenty-seven 
armed men, together with a company of timber merchants, 
who were glad of the opportunity to escape from the dangers 
of the region. ‘The crossing of the Salwen was accomplished 
with difficulty, for Dahgwin, the ferry station and the only 
village in the region, had been burned, its few inhabitants 
driven away, and every boat and raft destroyed. 

These journeys were exceedingly useful in the early part of 
the mission for gaining knowledge of the country, the centres of 
population, and the relation of one dialect to another, without 
which mission work could not be planned intelligently. From 
an evangelistic point of view they were a good means of 
spreading abroad a general knowledge of Christianity by 
direct preaching, and the distribution of many thousand 
_tracts and portions of Scripture. In most places the mission- 
aries were received courteously, and sometimes much interest 
in the new religion was exhibited. Had the political condi- 
tion of the country allowed, and the mission staff of workers 
been sufficient, the work done on these journeys might have 
been followed up, and permanent good results have been 
attained. 

Mrs. Bixby remained at Toungoo some months after the 
departure of her husband to America, and then followed him. 
In November, 1870, Mr. and Mrs. Cushing again made their 
home at Toungoo. They found the little church in the city 
scattered and holding no services. The majority of the mem- 
bers had died, gone over to the Romanists, or apostatized to 
heathenism. ‘The few faithful ones gathered about the mis- 
sionaries. In time, occasional baptisms took place, and the 
mission seemed to start on a healthy growth. <A school was 
established, which subsequently furnished the best native 
helpers which the mission has had. 


16 


In November, 1871, the Gospel of Matthew and a Grammar 
of the Shan Language were published. 

Mr. Kelley, a man of rare linguistic ability and earnest de- 
votion, joined the mission early in 1872. Entering enthusi- 
astically upon his work, he acquired a sufficient hold upon 
the Shan language in nine months to preach two very cred- 
itable sermons in the chapel at Toungoo, before he left with 
Mr. Cushing for a trip to Shanland, in December of that year. 
On Jan. 1, 1873, when almost. within a day’s journey of their 
destination, the city of Moné, he was drowned in a small lake 
called Nong Saweet. That day of unutterable sadness to his 
travelling companion closed with the burial of the loved 
brother beneath a lofty tree on the hillside which overlooks 
the southern shore of the lake. Thus suddenly were the 
bright prospects of an unusually promising life annihilated, 
and the mission made to suffer grievous loss. 

From that time onward for a decade, a series of mysterious 
providences visited the mission at Toungoo, and worked 
adversely to its prosperity. Mr. and Mrs. Cushing returned 
to America in 1874, on account of broken health. The mis- 
sion was left in the care of the newly arrived Burman mis- 
sionary, who kindly gave it such attention as his other duties 
allowed, until the return of Mrs. Cushing to Toungoo in Feb- 
ruary, 1877. In 1879, Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Mix joined the 
mission, but in a few months Mr. Mix’s health began to yield 
to the relentless grasp of consumption, of which he died at 
Liverpool, Eng., on his way to America, in 1881. Miss Rock- 
wood arrived in Toungoo at the close of 1880, and took 
charge of a girls’ school, in connection with Miss Upham. 
Besides her school work, she was enthusiastic in her efforts 
to visit the Shan villages, know their situation, and become 
familiar with the people. She was a woman of rare common- 
sense, cultivated mind, and earnest consecration. Just as 
she was ready, by the acquisition of the language and acquaint- 


17 


ance with the people, to enter upon a successful work for 
Christ, she was stricken with typhoid fever, and after a few 
days’ illness passed away to the better land in August, 1882. 
Under these successive misfortunes, the mission at Toungoo 
declined. 

In October, 1876, Mr. and Mrs. Cushing arrived in Burma a 
second time, and after some preparation started for Bhamé, a 
city on the Irrawaddy about eight hundred miles north of Ran- 
goon, to examine the field with reference to opening a Shan mis- 
sion. This movement was a part of a plan to establish mis- 
sions at several places in Shanland as opportunity should offer 
of doing so with any safety. The missionaries were delayed 
three weeks at Mandalay before a royal order permitting 
_ them to erect a house and reside at Bhamé could be ob- 
tained, for the chief queen died just before their arrival, and 
no court business could be done during the three weeks that 
intervened between her death and interment. After coming 
to the conclusion that it was desirable to start a mission at 
Bham6, particularly on account of its proximity to the Chinese 
Shans, notwithstanding the permission contained in the royal 
order, Mr. Cushing found great difficulty in getting a suitable 
building site. For months, through the influence of the 
deputy governor, who hated foreigners, the officials were 
constant in their refusal to sell any desirable place. At 
length a quarrel arose between the governor and the deputy 
governor, which led the former to take a more friendly attitude 
towards the missionary, and allow the sale of land and 
timber. 

Mr. Cushing also began a mission to the Kakhyens, visited 
many of their mountain villages, made friendship with their 
chiefs, and settled several Karen catechists among them. 

Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Freiday and Rev. Mr. and Mrs. Lyon 
arrived in Rangoon in December, 1877, and immediately pro- 
ceeded to Upper Burma, the former to take charge of the 


18 


Shan mission and the latter of the Kakhyen mission. Mr. 
and Mrs. Freiday have visited a number of the Chinese Shan 
principalities, but their work has been carried on under great 
disadvantages, arising from the systematic espionage and 
restriction thrown about foreigners by the late despotic 
government of Burma. Several have been baptized. In 
December, 1884, Bham6 was captured and burned by a band 
of Chinese and Kakhyen banditti, and the missionaries with- 
drew to Lower Burma. The station has been reopened since 
the annexation of Upper Burma by the British. 

Mrs. Cushing, after remaining at Bhamd two months, left 
in February, 1877, to take charge of the Shan mission at Toun. 
goo, as the promised re-enforcements for that station failed to 
arrive. Here she continued until the close of 1879, while Mr. 
Cushing returned to Bham6 with Mr. Roberts, the successor of 
the lamented Lyon, made a tour in the Kakhyen mountains to 
introduce the new missionary to the chiefs, and afterwards took 
a voyage to England for the restoration of his broken health. 

In the autumn of 1880, Mrs. J. B. Kelley returned to 
Burma, and entered upon work in the Maulmain and Thatone 
districts, where she has gathered a band of converts, who 
have been organized into a church. 

In January, 1880, Mr. and Mrs. Cushing took up their 
residence at Rangoon to be near the printing-press, but Mrs. 
Cushing’s serious ill health compelled her to return to 
America in the following July. From time to time many of 
the Shan villages in the vicinity of Rangoon were visited and 
a few were baptized. In 1881 a Shan and English dictionary 
was printed, and in 1882 a tentative edition of the Shan New 
Testament was published. The first five months of 1884 
were spent in connection with the Colquhoun Exploration 
Expedition, which reached Keng Hsen on the Cambodia 
River. This expedition furnished the opportunity of complet- 
ing the observations made during the journey of 1870, and 


¥ 


19 


offered opportunity for preaching. In January, 188s, the 
translation of the Old Testament was completed and is now 
under revision. The following March, Mr. Cushing returned 
to America to recruit his health. 

In November, 1882, the mission at Toungoo was again sup- 
plied with a worker by the arrival of Rev. J. E. Case, who 
has given his time to labor in the bazaar and among the 
villages. Mrs. Mix also returned to the station early in 1883, 
and took charge of the girls’ school. She has been much 
encouraged recently by the conversion of a Buddhist priest, 
as the result of evangelistic work that she has found time 
to do. 

From its beginning, the Shan mission has struggled with 
serious disadvantages. The dislike of foreigners felt by the 
Burman government, and its consequent restrictive policy 
towards them, and the natural difficulty of reaching such an 
interior mountainous country, enhanced by this hostile attitude 
of the Burman government towards foreigners, made vain the 
hope of an early transfer of the mission to Shanland. The 
successive deaths of missionaries at Toungoo, before they were 
prepared to enter fully into their work, were a serious disaster 
to the prosperity of the principal station. The fact also that, 
the Shans of Southern Burma are largely immigrants from the 
lower classes of people in the Shan principalities has been a 
great disadvantage. Besides this, although the immigrants 
number 55,000, they are much scattered over the country, 
and are noted for their restlessness, which shows itself in 
frequent removal from one place to another. A good illus- 
tration of this is seen in the fact that in 1880, on a visit to 
several Shan villages north of the city of Toungoo, scarcely a 
family remained which dwelt in them in 1873. 

The true home of the Shan mission is Shanland. All the 
work which was done previous to its opening was preparatory 
to the time when God by his providence should break down 


20 


the barriers of Burman despotism and exclusiveism, and open 
the mountains and valleys of that interior country to the 
permanent entrance of the missionary of the cross. ‘That 
day came in the annexation of Upper Burma to the British 
Empire. British influence and control must henceforth be 
such that the Shan principalities tributary to the late King of 
Burma will become a safe residence for merchant and mis- 
sionary. Stations were opened at Thibaw, in Shanland, in 
1890, and at Moné in 1892, and the work thus begun in the 
home of the Shans is very encouraging. ‘The native rulers 
are favorable to the work, and have given liberal contributions 
for schools and hospitals. The prospects are brighter than 
ever before. The present need of the Shan mission is men 
who are ready to go into the interior, take up a life of com- 
parative isolation and pioneer labor, and availing themselves 
of the preparatory work already done, vigorously prosecute 
the work of evangelization. The promise of God is sure, and 
work thus done cannot fail of fruitage. 


21 


OTHER RACES IN SHANLAND. 


The Burmese Shans are not the only people who will be 
affected by missionary work in their country. While they are 
found principally on the broad plateaux and in the large 
valleys between the mountain ranges, the mountains them 
selves are inhabited by many small tribes of alien race whe 
bear much of the same relation to the dominant Shan people 
that the Karens of Lower Burma bear to the Burmans. The 
most important of these smaller races are the Kakhyens 
Paloungs, Kahkwees, Kahkaus, Moo-seurs and Toungthoos, 
each of which has a language peculiar to itself, although many 
of each race are more or less familiar with Shan, 

The Kakhyen, in the north, is probably the most numerous 
of these races. They are still pressing southward, and 
within a short period of time have gained possession of the 
greater part of Theinnee, the largest of the Shan princi- 
palities lately tributary to the court of Ava. How much 
farther south they will continue to press remains to be seen. 
They have no central government, and are controlled by 
almost as many chiefs as they have villages. They engage in 
frequent warfare among themselves, as well as with the Bur- 
mans and Shans, and are very tenacious in their feuds. Yet 
the villages in the Bham6 mountains, which have accepted 
Christian teachers, have generally proved true to their en- 
gagements and treated them with kindness. They have also 
shown much readiness to listen to Christianity, and some 
have been baptized by Rev. Mr. Roberts, who, with the native 
Karen missionaries from Bassein, has worked among them, 
notwithstanding serious interruptions due to political troubles. 
They have a great desire for education and the power which 
education confers. Taking advantage of this desire and 
rightly directing it, the missionary may find an aid in his 
work, which is by no means to be despised. The outlook of 


22 


the mission already established among this people is most 
hopeful, and unless unforeseen obstacles prevent, a large 
Christian body will rise among them. 

The Paloungs occupy the Toungbain, a large tea-growing 
region, six or seven days’ travel northeast of Mandalay. 
They are much more civilized than the Kakhyens, and dwell 
at peace with their Shan neighbors. Years ago they embraced 
Buddhism, and monasteries and priests are numerous in their 
mountain villages. The Shan language and literature are 
taught to the boys in their monastic schools. In consequence, 
a large number of the people are familar with Shan and use 
it with fluency. 

The Toungthoos are found in the principalities of Legya, 
Merng Seet, and Merng Paun. Their traditions assert that 
they came from the district of Thatone many generations ago, 
on account of political troubles in that region. They dress 
in the Shan costume, and in appearance resemble the Shans 
more than any other of the races found in the Shan country. 
They are not, however, a race cognate with the Shan, for their 
language allies them with the Pwo Karen branch of the 
Karen family. They are strong Buddhists and have many 
monasteries. Althoughthey have a written literature of their 
own, Shan books are taught in most of the monasteries. In- 
termarriage with the Shans is quite frequent. Through these 
influences there is a tendency on the part of the race to 
merge itself in the Shan people. 

The Kahkwees and Kahkaus are numerous in the moun- 
tains of the Kengtung principality. They are peaceful and 
industrious. Their costumes are somewhat fantastic, es- 
pecially those of the females. Their languages are unlike, 
and have never been reduced to writing. 

The Moo-seurs are a very peculiar people, occupying a 
portion of the same large principality and extending across 
the Chinese frontier. A few villages of them are found as 


aS 


23 


far south as Chiengmai, in Northern Siam. They never in 
any circumstances engage in war, and not a few of their 
domestic customs are very singular. From their quiet and 
peaceful character they have earned the respect of savage 
and warlike neighbors, who grant them an immunity from 
predatory raids. Their language has never been reduced to 


_writing, but they would welcome Christian teachers among 


them, much as did the Karens in early mission history. 
Their timid and trustful nature would make them ready be- 
lievers of the truth taught by teachers whom they considered 
to be their true friends. 

In great contrast with the Moo-seurs are the Lewas, who 
occupy territory adjacent to them. Only avery small portion 
of this fierce people has ever been subjected and made to 
pay tribute by the princes cf Kengtung. Their mountain 
country has been defended with a bravery that has main- 
tained its independence. The Lewas are the most savage of 
the races in Burma. Their garments are of the rudest kind. 
Frequently, the only clothing worn is a small strip of bark 
cloth about the loins. The Lewas are spirit worshippers, but 
they have the unenviable notoriety of offering human heads 
at some of their principal religious feasts. The head of some 
aged relative or friend is sacrificed by the people of a village, 
when they fail to secure the head of a traveller for whom they 
have laid in ambush. 

Other much smaller races are found in Shanland. Among 
these are the Pantongs, Yang Lam, and Yang Set. These 
occupy very limited areas, aad are generally quite at home in 
the Shan language. In the Mobyai Province, on the Toun- 
goo frontier, the Padoung and some other small tribes of 
Karens are found. Rev. Mr. Bunker is succeeding in his 
efforts to reach them. The Danoos, Danaus, and Toungyos, 
who live in the Burmanized border Shan principalities, use 
only the Burman language. They are few in number. 


24 


Various as are the conditions and habits of these different 
races, very many of the people belonging to them are acces- 
sible to the Shan missionary through the Shan language. The 
number thus accessible must increase rapidly when the peace- 
ful and orderly rule of the English government is established 
in their country. The tendency in all countries is for the 
smaller races to yield before the language and customs of the 
dominant races. It would be foolish and wasteful of money 


and time to establish separate missions for all these fragment- 


ary peoples, but they offer an opportunity for much Christian 
effort on the part of Shan missionaries, who, in the future, 
may make their home among the Shans of the regions in which 
they are found. Such labor would not only result in the con- 
version of many to Christianity, but tend to diminish race 
feeling, and bring about a greater unification of the people. 


